How was world’s earliest code of law, the ‘Laws of Urukagina’

In the city-state of Lagash in ancient Mesopotamia, when the arrogance of power was seizing even the last possessions of the poor, a visionary king named Urukagina emerged. He was not only a king but a revolutionary who, for the first time in human history, dared to establish a legal system to protect the rights of the people. His reforms, known in history as the ‘Laws of Urukagina’, marked the dawn of a new era in which the oppressed tasted freedom for the first time.

Around 2400 BC, the Sumerian city-state of Lagash was drowning in the quicksand of corruption. During the reign of King Lugalanda, priests and the wealthy plundered the property of ordinary people at will. The poor were losing their land and possessions, widows and orphans were helpless. Every layer of society was filled only with exploitation and deprivation. At this critical time, Urukagina ascended the throne of Lagash. He claimed himself not merely as an heir to power but as a messenger of liberation sent by the gods. His first and foremost aim was to eliminate corruption and establish justice and equality in society.

Charter of Freedom: the first code of law
Urukagina’s greatest contribution was his reformist laws. Although the full text of this code has not yet been discovered, parts of it have been recovered from inscriptions. These laws were not only to prevent abuse of power but a clear attempt to secure the basic rights of ordinary people.

Some notable aspects of the law
Protection of widows and orphans: Urukagina exempted widows and orphans from taxes. This was a revolutionary step that established the state’s responsibility to the vulnerable.

Funeral expenses: The king declared that after the death of a person, the state would bear all funeral costs, including food, drink and other rituals. This ensured that poor families could bid farewell to their loved ones with dignity.

Protection of land and property: The law prevented the rich and priests from seizing land by force. Urukagina clearly declared that no wealthy man could forcibly buy anything from the poor. If a poor man did not wish to sell, no pressure could be applied.

Freedom from debt traps: Exorbitant interest rates were a major problem of the time. Urukagina’s laws curbed this exploitative practice and freed people from the traps of debt.

‘Ama-gi’, the first word of freedom: In Urukagina’s code appeared the word ‘ama-gi’, meaning freedom. This was the first recorded use of the concept of liberty in human history. Urukagina proudly wrote in his inscriptions, ‘Widows and orphans shall no longer depend on the mercy of the powerful.’

Power struggles and defeat
During Urukagina’s reign, there were not only reforms but also wars. His greatest rival was Lugalzagesi, king of Uruk, the neighbouring city-state of Lagash. Lugalzagesi was also ruler of Umma. Fierce conflict arose between the two kings over control of the border regions of Lagash.

In the seventh year of Urukagina’s reign, Lugalzagesi attacked Lagash. Urukagina was defeated in this war, and most of Lagash was occupied by Lugalzagesi. The devastation of Lagash gave rise to a lament, perhaps the first recorded elegy in human history. It read, ‘The people of Umma have sinned against the god Ningirsu… Urukagina, king of Girsu, committed no offence; but Lugalzagesi, ruler of Umma, may his goddess Nisaba make him bear the burden of his sins.’

Though Lugalzagesi went on to conquer almost the whole of Sumer and establish the first Sumerian empire, his reign was short-lived. Afterwards Sargon, king of Akkad, defeated him and took over his empire.

Women’s role and controversy
Another important aspect of Urukagina’s reforms was the empowerment of royal women. He expanded the royal ‘Household of Women’ into an institution of about 1,500 members, naming it the ‘Household of goddess Bau’. Vast tracts of land seized from priests were brought under this institution and placed under the supervision of Urukagina’s wife, Shasha (or Shagshag).

However, some of his laws are controversial from a modern perspective. For instance, he banned polygamy for women and prescribed stoning as punishment. Another fragmented inscription states, "If a woman says to a man [text unclear], her mouth shall be crushed with burnt bricks." No such law has been found for men, leading some modern historians to conclude that these were the first written examples of discrimination against women.

Urukagina’s legacy
The laws of Urukagina are a milestone in human history. They proved for the first time that a government could exist not only to rule but also to guarantee the rights of the people. His efforts laid the foundation of modern society and legal systems. He showed that a ruler’s role was not merely to enjoy power but also to stand by the oppressed and deprived. Though his reign was short and he was defeated in war, his laws and ideals remain undimmed. He taught us that true strength lies not in weapons but in justice and equality. Here are some additional laws of Urukagina’s reforms:

Protection of common people
Relief from debt: Urukagina declared in his inscriptions that the burden of excessive taxes and debt on the people would be reduced. He curtailed the influence of usurious moneylenders so that ordinary people would not be trapped in debt.

Prevention of land seizure: Priests and the wealthy used to forcibly seize the land of poor farmers. Urukagina’s laws ended this practice. He said clearly, ‘When a good donkey is bought, the priest shall no longer press him saying, “I will give you this”; rather, a wealthy man shall pay with silver according to the contract.’ In this way he ensured fair market prices and the rights of private property.

Social and religious reforms
Temple property: Urukagina freed temple property and sacred places from priests’ personal control and ordered their use for public welfare. He declared, ‘The priest’s house and garden shall not be separated from temple property.’ This measure established state control over temple wealth.

Funeral rules: Urukagina laid down detailed rituals and expenses for burial. For example, for burying a dead person three jars of beer and eighty loaves of bread would be given. Those in charge of the grave would receive a bed and a goat. In addition, priests and musicians involved in the funeral rites would be allotted specified amounts of bread and beer so that none could demand more than necessary.

Crime and justice
Theft and murder: Although most of Urukagina’s laws focused on social reform, they also included strict measures against crimes such as theft, murder and seizure of property. The inscriptions state that action would be taken against such crimes to maintain peace and order in society.

Urukagina’s laws not only created a legal framework but also gave birth to a new social vision. His aim was to build a society where everyone would enjoy equal rights and security, and for this reason he is regarded as one of the first reformers in human history.

Chandan Chowdhury: Poet and journalist