What was India's intelligence agency like 2,500 years ago?

The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is well known as India’s intelligence agency. But did you know that long before this, in the 4th century BC, a similar agency operated in India?

According to history, the CBI was founded in 1941 as the Special Police Establishment. Its main purpose was to combat corruption and bribery during the Second World War. Later, this agency evolved into India’s central investigative body, the CBI.

When we hear of the CBI or any other intelligence agency today, a certain picture comes to mind. But 2,500 years ago, India’s reality was far more complex and astonishing. There was no modern technology then, no satellites or advanced communication systems. Yet, Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire, and his chief adviser Kautilya, also known as Chanakya, created such an organised intelligence system that it amazes us even today.

Details of this system can be found in Kautilya’s famous work Arthashastra. It was not merely a spy network but a powerful instrument to ensure the internal and external security of the state. Its foundations rested on strict discipline, trust and flawless disguise.

Two main categories of spies
Kautilya divided his spies mainly into two groups: Samstha and Sanchara.

1. Samstha: These spies were stationed permanently in specific places. They mingled with different levels of society and gathered information. For example, disguised as a market trader, a village farmer or a teacher, they would conceal their true identity.

2. Sanchara: These were travelling spies. They moved from one place to another collecting news. In the guise of monks, beggars, ascetics or singers, they could move across the kingdom with ease.

Spies in diverse disguises
The spies of the Mauryan Empire, known as Gudhapurusha (hidden men), were divided into groups according to their profession and skills. Their disguises were so perfect that ordinary people could hardly detect their real identity.

Kapatika: These were intelligent and clever students. After finishing their studies, they were trained as spies. Their main task was to monitor dishonest officials and expose their corruption.

Udasthita: Members of this group took on the disguise of monks or ascetics. They roamed the kingdom, gathering information about public sentiment, loyalty towards the king, and signs of possible rebellion.

Grihapatika: These spies posed as poor farmers or householders. By blending into village life, they collected valuable information about agriculture, economy and rural society.

Vaidehaka: Members of this group disguised themselves as traders. Under the cover of commercial activity, they observed enemy movements and activities in markets, ports and border areas.

Tapasa: These spies posed as ascetics or saints. Disguised as pilgrims, they travelled widely and reported on public opinion to the king.

The role of women spies
Women also played an important role in the Mauryan intelligence system. They were recruited into groups where men could not easily gain entry.

Satri: These were intelligent and shrewd women. Usually disguised as dancers or courtesans, they entered the gatherings of high-ranking officials and collected secret information from them.

Parivrajika: These were spies disguised as nuns or beggars. They could easily enter aristocratic households and gather important family and political information from the women. Their main task was to identify greedy and miserly traders who hoarded goods to create artificial crises.

Four types of discontented people were targets
Chanakya directed his spies to keep special watch on four categories of discontented people. Identifying and controlling them was one of the key tasks of the intelligence system.

Kruddhavarga (the angry): Those who were displeased with the king for any reason. Once the cause of their anger was known, the king tried to appease them with gifts or rewards.

Bhitavarga (the fearful): Those who had suffered punishment or humiliation for wrongful acts. They too were to be won over.

Lubdhavarga (the greedy or deprived): Those unable to pay taxes or impoverished by addiction. They were employed in minor palace jobs such as sweepers or labourers.

Manivarga (the ambitious wealthy): This class included rich landlords and ambitious elites. The king personally offered them gifts and entrusted them with the rule of small territories. If they still remained dissatisfied, spies of the Rasada group plotted their secret assassination.

Cruelty and strict discipline
In the Mauryan intelligence system, gathering information was not the final step. Cruelty and strict discipline were also integral to it. There was a special category of spies called Rasada, known for their ruthlessness. Their main task was to poison and kill rebels identified by Tapasa spies.

There was no forgiveness for betrayal or mistakes. To verify the honesty of spies, Kautilya used a special method. He would send multiple spies to collect the same piece of information, without their knowledge of each other. If their reports matched, it was considered reliable. If discrepancies were found, the informer was severely punished, even with execution.

Narayan Bandopadhyay’s book Mauryayuger Bharatiya Samaj notes that when Chandragupta Maurya seized power from the Nanda dynasty, it was Chanakya’s intelligence network that helped him most. This highly organised and effective intelligence system of 2,500 years ago proves how powerful a state can become by using strategic intelligence and human resources. The prosperity and stability of the Mauryan Empire owed much to Chanakya’s statecraft and the spy system he created.

Chandan Chowdhury: Poet and journalist